This phenomenon was described in in a now-famous paper by John Ridley Stroop, and is known in experimental psychology as the Stroop effect. One explanation for the Stroop effect is called interference. From the earliest years of school, reading is a task that people practice every day. We become so good at it that we read words automatically Lia de Leon Ernst MD, in Functional Neurosurgery and Neuromodulation, Effects of RNS System on Mood and Cognition. As part of the Pivotal Trial, neuropsychologic data were collected at baseline before implantation and then at 1 and 2 years after starting RNS treatment. Primary cognitive outcomes were scores on the Boston Naming Test and Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test Mar 28, · Acute exercise enhanced performance on the Stroop task and increased task-related activity in the right frontal polar area, indicating that exercise increased the HAROLD effect or the older brain’s ability for compensatory brain activation (Fig. 1B). An important area of future research will be to determine how long these acute exercise
Stroop Effect | Simply Psychology
Try out PMC Labs and tell us what you think. Learn More. A significant body of work has investigated the effects of acute exercise, defined as a single bout of physical activity, on mood and cognitive functions in humans.
Several excellent recent reviews have summarized these findings; however, the neurobiological basis of these results has received less attention. In this review, we will first briefly summarize the cognitive and behavioral changes that occur with acute exercise in humans. We will then review the results from both human and animal model studies documenting the wide range of neurophysiological and neurochemical alterations that occur after a single bout of exercise, stroop effect lab report.
Finally, we will discuss the strengths, weaknesses, stroop effect lab report, and missing elements in the current literature, as well as offer an acute exercise standardization protocol and provide possible goals for future research. The positive influence of exercise on mood and cognition across the lifespan has become a topic of much excitement [ 1 ]. In particular, abundant data suggest that physical activity can reduce the risk of various neurological diseases and protect the brain from the detrimental effects of aging [ 2—4 ].
Animal models have focused mainly on the effects of long-term exercise i. In humans, both behavioral and functional imaging approaches have started to identify the neuroanatomical systems modulated by long-term increases in exercise. The most commonly reported area to undergo improvement is the prefrontal cortex, with exercise-induced enhancements observed in attention and other executive functions [ 9 ].
As well as for improving cognition in children and healthy adults, these long-term effects of exercise are of particular interest for their possible role in improving cognitive function during aging [ 10—12 ]. As we age, cognitive decline, though not inevitable, is a common occurrence resulting from the process of neurodegeneration.
Because of the role of exercise in enhancing neurogenesis and brain plasticity, physical activity may serve as a potential therapeutic tool to prevent, delay, or treat cognitive decline.
Indeed, studies in both rodents and humans have shown that long-term exercise is helpful in both delaying the onset of cognitive decline and dementia as well as improving symptoms in patients with an already existing diagnosis [ 13—15 ].
A recent set of excellent meta-analyses has detailed a range of behavioral changes, concluding that acute exercise has an overall small positive effect on cognitive functioning, stroop effect lab report, especially in areas of prefrontal cortex-dependent cognition [ 9, 16—19 ]. Additionally, acute exercise has been shown to enhance affective, mood, and emotional states [ 20 ].
Because of the lack of a general stroop effect lab report regarding low- moderate- and high-intensity aerobic exercise, human studies have utilized a range of acute exercise protocols. This has led to a diverse set of findings, which are stroop effect lab report throughout the manuscript; implications for such findings are considered in the discussion. For this review, we have primarily focused on aerobic exercise, but have included some studies that utilize resistance exercise. Finally, our focus has centered around the effects of acute exercise on behaviors dependent on the prefrontal cortex, mood, and stress stroop effect lab report, but stroop effect lab report small collection of literature is starting to reveal that acute exercise may be beneficial on a variety of other brain processes as well, including motor learning and memory dependent on striatal-cortical circuits.
To maximize results, the majority of rodent studies investigating the effects of physical activity on brain structure and function utilize running protocols typically lasting three weeks or more. Therefore, acute exercise, as it is used in humans e. The majority of studies that have utilized a single bout of exercise typically examine the effects on neurochemical changes.
Many fewer studies have examined the behavioral effects of acute exercise in rodents. Because of the limited number of these studies, we have included those that investigated the effects of one week or less of exercise, which is considered an acquisition time period for running in the rodent [ 21 ], on behavioral and brain outcomes.
The goal of this review is to summarize the wide range of neurophysiological and neurochemical changes that have been described after an acute bout of exercise, from studies in both animal models and human subjects, and to link these changes to a range of behavioral effects that have been described mainly in humans.
As chronic exercise is ultimately the result of regular bouts of acute exercise, stroop effect lab report, understanding the changes induced by a singular bout of exercise may provide novel insight into how to interpret and even approach the study of the effects of chronic increases in physical exercise on cognitive function, stroop effect lab report.
A comprehensive set of narrative [ 22—26 ] and meta-analytic reviews [ 9, 16—19 ] that focused on the effects of acute exercise on cognition in people concluded that acute exercise has an overall small positive effect on cognitive functioning, stroop effect lab report.
However, the individual studies supporting this conclusion are highly variable, demonstrating behavioral effects ranging from strongly positive to detrimental.
One of the main reasons this spread of results exists is because of the diverse exercise regimens that have been utilized. Notably, there is currently no standardized way to assess the influence of exercise on cognitive functioning, which has resulted in a wide variety of physical activity protocols that differ in the critical factors of format i.
Despite this wide range of testing parameters, three of the most stroop effect lab report effects reported are 1 improvements in cognitive tasks that depend primarily on the prefrontal cortex [ 27 ], 2 enhancements in mood state [ 28, 29 ], and 3 decreases in stress level [ 30 ] Fig. More limited evidence exists to show that acute exercise improves long-term memory [ 31—34 ] and associative memory [ 35, 36 ] dependent on the hippocampus, learning [ 37 ] and retention [ 38, 39 ] of motor skills dependent on the striatum, emotional memory dependent on the amygdala [ 40, 41 ], stroop effect lab report, and skills dependent on both the primary visual and motor cortices [ 42 ].
The Time Course of Behavioral, Functional, Physiological, and Neurochemical Effects of Acute Exercise. The tasks most often used to test the effects of acute exercise on cognition are those that assess the functions of the prefrontal cortex, including attention and perception tasks that focus primarily on reaction time, and both verbal and visual working memory tasks.
Collectively, this literature shows that executive functions including attention, working memory, problem solving, cognitive flexibility, verbal fluency, decision making, and inhibitory control receive the most benefit from acute exercise [ 9 ], with effects lasting for up to two hours post-exercise cessation Fig.
Moreover, many of these neuropsychological assessments measure several aspects of behavior including both accuracy of performance and speed of processing. McMorris and Hale performed a meta-analysis examining the effects of acute exercise on both accuracy and speed of processing, revealing that speed significantly improved post-exercise, with minimal or no effect on accuracy [ 17 ].
These authors concluded that increasing task difficulty or complexity may help to augment the effect of acute exercise on accuracy. Duration, intensity, and perceived exertion refer to the exercise session itself, excluding the warmup and cooldown, stroop effect lab report. See Supplementary Figure 1 for more details and a data collection template. A major factor that has been shown to influence the cognitive effects of acute exercise in people is exercise intensity.
Based on this idea, which predicts that moderate- but not low- or high- intensity exercise supports enhanced cognition, the majority of studies have utilized moderate-intensity exercise protocols. Some stroop effect lab report have examined the effects of varying doses of exercise [ 34, 45—48 ]. Specifically, moderate-intensity exercise may be more beneficial for executive functions Tower of London and Stroopwhereas high-intensity exercise may be more beneficial for information processing Paced Auditory Serial Addition [ 45, 49 ].
In this population, moderate-intensity, but not high-intensity, exercise facilitated information process speed, whereas both moderate- and high-intensity exercise were beneficial for inhibitory control. Comparison of these studies indicate that exercise type as well as health status of the individual may be important factors affecting the impact of acute exercise on cognitive functioning.
Acute exercise is one of the most effective behavioral techniques for self-regulation of mood in stroop effect lab report populations [ 51 ]. The effects of acute exercise on mood state have been evaluated using a variety of self-reported questionnaires such as the Profile of Mood Stroop effect lab report POMS; a questionnaire that measures tension, depression, anger, fatigue, confusion, vigor and overall mood disturbance and the Positive and Negative Affects Scale PANAS [ 28 ].
These acute interventions have shown that exercise alleviates negative as well as enhances positive mood states [ 52 ], with effects occurring immediately after and lasting up to one day post-exercise cessation [ 28, stroop effect lab report, 29, 53 ] Fig.
As a large number of studies have utilized the POMS, one review sought to determine the areas of mood that are most influenced by acute exercise [ 54 ].
They found that the largest improvements in mood were decreases in tension, depression, anger, and confusion. Results revealed that compared to a picture-viewing control group, acute exercise significantly increased high-arousal positive affect HAP e. In contrast, low-arousal positive affect LAP e. This study highlights the importance of assessing the influence of acute exercise on both low- and high-arousal affective states across different age groups.
As the acute exercise protocols used in these studies vary dramatically, the best protocol for improving mood is unclear. Some evidence exists, however, to suggest that the most effective type of exercise at producing mood improvements may be a workout experience that participants find enjoyable. For example, in a study that compared varying exercise intensities low- moderate- stroop effect lab report, and high-intensity to a self-chosen exercise intensity, the greatest mood benefits in the form of high enjoyment scores after exercise came from those who were able to choose their own workout experience based on the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale [ 57 ].
In addition to improving mood, studies also show that acute exercise is effective at reducing stress both on self-reported questionnaires [ 58 ] and from anxiety-inducing procedures conducted in the laboratory [ 59 ] Fig. Acute exercise, for example, decreases stress-related blood pressure responses to laboratory-based stressors including mental arithmetic, public speaking, neuropsychological assessments, or the cold pressor test [ 30, 60 ].
Brownley and colleagues found that this effect was most likely a result of acute exercise suppressing the sympathetic nervous system response to stress [ 61 ], stroop effect lab report. These studies suggest that acute exercise may be an effective strategy for alleviating the psychological symptoms produced by an acute stressor.
Additionally, studies have shown that acute exercise helps relieve symptoms associated with mood and psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and post-traumatic stress disorder [ 62—64 ]. A large collection of research in humans has shown that a single bout of exercise alters behavior at the level of affective state and cognitive functioning in several key ways.
In terms of stroop effect lab report state, acute exercise decreases negative affect, increases positive affect, and decreases the psychological and physiological response to acute stress [ 28 ]. These effects stroop effect lab report been reported to persist for up to 24 hours after exercise cessation [ 28, 29, 53 ].
In terms of cognitive functioning, acute exercise primarily enhances executive functions dependent on the prefrontal cortex including attention, working memory, problem solving, stroop effect lab report, cognitive flexibility, verbal fluency, decision making, and inhibitory control [ 9 ].
These positive changes have been demonstrated to occur with very low to very high exercise intensities [ 9 ], with effects lasting for up to two hours after the end of the exercise bout Fig. Brain imaging and electrophysiological techniques including electroencephalography EEGfunctional magnetic resonance imaging fMRIfunctional near-infrared spectroscopy fNIRSand transcranial magnetic stimulation TMS in humans have started to provide insight into how an acute bout of exercise affects the physiological and functional activity patterns of the brain Fig.
Of all these approaches, stroop effect lab report, only EEG studies have examined the effects of acute exercise on stroop effect lab report brain functions in the absence of a cognitive load. We start with a description of these baseline EEG studies in both humans and rodents. We then turn to results from studies using this and other approaches that describe how the brain responds to an acute bout of exercise during the performance of various cognitive demands.
The majority of studies assessing the effect of acute exercise on the EEG signal have focused on the alpha frequency band, a neural oscillatory pattern in the frequency range of 7. Alpha oscillations indicate a state of decreased cortical activation and are associated with states of fatigue, relaxation, and diminished anxiety [ 65 ]. Because acute exercise causes these types of behavioral changes, the predominant hypothesis was that acute exercise should also increase alpha activity.
However, in their review examining the effects of acute exercise on resting state brain activity, Crabbe and Dishman found significant increases not only in alpha activity but in delta, theta, and beta activity as well [ 66 ] Fig.
This review included 18 studies of acute exercise that incorporated protocols of walking, running, cycling, aqua, and isometric exercises that ranged from 2 to 60 minutes, with heart rates of 89 to beats per minute, and EEG activity measured anywhere from immediately after and up to 30 minutes post-exercise cessation [ 67 ].
Despite this range in exercise protocols, the effect size was moderately large, stroop effect lab report, ranging from 0. Though capturing electrophysiological changes in the human brain during exercise is difficult, microelectrodes and local field potential LFP recordings enable this kind of data collection in rodents.
Using a minute treadmill running paradigm at 13 meters per minute, Li and colleagues found similar increases in alpha and theta power amplitude in rodents [ 68, 69 ], with these effects dissipating within 10 minutes of the end of exercise [ 70 ] Fig. An extensive body of work examining LFP patterns in rodents during locomotion has shown that the hippocampal theta oscillation is invariably present during spatial navigation, wheel, and treadmill running [ 71 ].
During theta, the hippocampus is bathed in an increased concentration of acetylcholine that is believed to facilitate plasticity [ 72, 73 ].
In addition to promoting synaptic plasticity, theta organizes hippocampal neurons into sequential activity patterns that stroop effect lab report later repeated during subsequent behaviors [ 74, 75 ]. In the situation of acute exercise, this sequencing of neural firing may reinforce the synapses between neurons to support subsequent memory for events that unfold over time [ 76 ]. As the prefrontal cortex is a recipient of this sequential activity from the hippocampus [ 77, 78 ], prefrontal cortical neurons exhibit similar predictive or preparatory behavior during running [ 79 ], which is of particular interest as prefrontal cortex function clearly benefits from acute exercise see above.
These observations suggest that the exercise-induced sustained theta oscillation, stroop effect lab report in particular the organized sequential activity and elevated cholinergic tone, may specifically enhance performance on tasks that stroop effect lab report on hippocampal-prefrontal interactions [ 80—82 ]. Studies using EEG in humans have also examined the effects of acute exercise on the electrophysiological signal during cognitive task performance.
Hillman and colleagues provided a comprehensive review that nicely describes the effects of acute exercise on electrophysiological indices of cognitive processes including stimulus discrimination, inhibition, and action monitoring [ 83 ], stroop effect lab report.
Event related potentials ERPs are brain responses measured through EEG that are stereotyped and time-locked to specific internal or external events. Compared to a resting baseline and low-intensity exercise, moderate-intensity exercise decreased reaction time in both young and old adults.
This behavioral improvement was accompanied by decreased P3 latencies in both young and old adults as well as increased P3 amplitudes in young adults. This work suggests that one mechanism underlying the acute exercise-induced improvements in cognition may be the enhancement of synchronous firing between cortical neurons. fNIRS is a non-invasive optical technique that utilizes near-infrared light to measure the hemodynamic response of the cerebral cortex. This technique has been used to examine the influence of acute exercise on human brain function.
Following this exercise-induced prefrontal hypoperfusion, this region is thought to experience a rebound surge of oxygenated blood, stroop effect lab report, resulting in enhanced prefrontal function. Yanagisawa and colleagues conducted the first study to assess the neural substrates of acute exercise-induced enhancements in cognitive functioning using fNIRS [ ].
Compared to the resting control condition, acute moderate exercise significantly increased inhibitory control as measured by the interference component of the Stroop Task incongruent minus neutraland this effect was accompanied by increased activation in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a brain region integral to executive functioning Fig.
The Stroop Task: The Psych Test You Cannot Beat
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