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Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays Princeton University Pressis a book by Canadian literary critic and theorist Northrop Frye that attempts to formulate an overall view of the scope, theory, principles, and techniques of literary criticism derived exclusively from literature.
Frye consciously omits all specific and practical criticism, instead offering classically inspired theories of modes, symbols, myths and genres, essay on criticism summary, in what he termed "an interconnected group of suggestions.
Frye's four essays are sandwiched between a "Polemical Introduction" and a "Tentative Conclusion. The purpose of the introduction is to defend the need for literary criticism, to distinguish the nature of genuine literary criticism from other forms of criticism, and to clarify the difference between direct experience of literature and the systematic study of literary criticism.
There are a number of reasons why the introduction is labeled as a " polemic ". In defending the need for literary criticism, Frye opposes a notion common to Tolstoy and Romantic thought that "natural taste" is superior to scholarly learning and by extension, criticism.
Frye also accuses a number of methods of criticism e. MarxistFreudianJungianNeo-classicaletc. as being embodiments of the deterministic fallacy. He is not opposed to these ideologies in particular, but sees the application of any external, ready-made ideology to literature as a departure from genuine criticism. This results in subjecting a work of literature to an individual's pet philosophy and an elevation or demotion of authors according essay on criticism summary their conformity to the pet philosophy.
Another point is to distinguish the difference between personal taste and genuine criticism, essay on criticism summary. Personal taste is too easily swayed by the prevailing morals, values and tastes of the critic's society at that point in history.
If taste succumbs entirely to such social forces, the result is the same as that of consciously adopting an external ideology described above. Yet even if there is a consensus among critics that the works of John Milton are more fruitful than Richard Blackmore to use Frye's examplea critic contributes little by saying so. In other words, value judgments contribute little to meaningful criticism. In place of meaningless criticism, Frye proposes a genuine literary criticism which draws its method from the body of literature itself.
Literary criticism ought to be a systematic study of works of literature, just as physics is of nature and history is of human action. Frye makes the explicit assumption that in order for systematic study to be possible, the body of literature must already possess a systematic nature.
Frye claims that we know very little about this essay on criticism summary as yet and that the systematic study of literature has progressed little since Aristotle. Frye concludes his introduction by addressing the weaknesses of his argument. He mentions that the introduction is a polemic, but written in first person to acknowledge the individual nature of his views. He concedes that the following essays can only give a preliminary, and likely inexact, glimpse of the system of literature.
He admits to making sweeping generalities that will often prove false in light of particular examples. Finally, he stresses that while many feel an "emotional repugnance" to schematization of poetrythe schematization should be regarded as an aspect of criticism, not the vibrant, personal, direct experience of the work itself—much as the geologist turns away from his or her systematic work to enjoy the beauty of the mountains.
Essay on criticism summary sees works of literature as lying somewhere on a continuum between being plot driven, essay on criticism summary, as in most fictionessay on criticism summary, and idea driven, as in essays and lyrical poetry. The First essay begins by exploring the different aspects of fiction subdivided into tragic and comic in each mode and ends with a similar discussion of thematic literature.
Frye divides his study of tragic, comic, and thematic literature into five "modes", each identified with a specific literary epoch: mythic, essay on criticism summary, romantic, high mimeticlow mimetic, and ironic. This categorization is a essay on criticism summary of ethosor characterization and relates to how the protagonist is portrayed in respect to the rest of humanity and the protagonist's environment, essay on criticism summary.
Frye suggests that Classical civilizations progressed historically through the development of these modes, and that something similar happened in Western civilization during medieval and modern times. He speculates that contemporary fiction may be undergoing a return to myth, completing a full circle through the five modes.
Frye argues that when irony is pushed to extremes, it returns to the mode of myth; this concept of the recursion of historical cycles is familiar from Giambattista Vico [3] and Oswald Spengler. Finally, Frye explores the nature of thematic literature in each mode. Here, the intellectual content is more important than the plot, so these modes are organized by what is considered more authoritative or educational at the time.
Also, these modes tend to organize by societal structure. Now that Frye has established his theory of modes, he proposes five levels, or phasesof symbolism, each phase independently possessing its own mythosethos, and dianoia as laid out in the first essay, essay on criticism summary. These phases are based on the four levels of medieval allegory the first two phases constituting the first level. Also, Frye relates the five phases with the ages of man laid out in the first essay.
Frye defines a literary symbol as: "[A]ny unit of any literary structure that can be isolated for critical attention. The descriptive phase exhibits the centrifugal, or outward, property of a symbol. For example, when a word such as 'cat' evokes a definition, image, experience or any property connected with the word 'cat' external to the literary context of the particular usage, we have the word taken in the descriptive sense. Frye labels any such symbol a sign. He does not define the sign beyond this sense of pointing to the external, nor does he refer to any particular semiotic theory.
In opposition to the sign stands the motif which is a symbol taken in the literal phase. This phase demonstrates the inward, or centripetal, direction of meaning, best described as the contextual meaning of the symbol.
To Frye, literal means nearly the opposite of its usage in common speech; to say that something "literally" means something generally involves referring to a definition external to the text. Instead, literal refers to the symbol's meaning in its specific literary situation while descriptive refers to personal connotation and conventional definition.
Finally, Frye draws an analogy between rhythm and harmony with the literal and descriptive phases respectively. The literal phase tends to be horizontal, dependent on what comes before essay on criticism summary after the symbol while the descriptive phase tends to be laid out in space, having external meanings that vary in nearness to the contextual meaning.
Frye next introduces the formal phase, embodied by the image, in order to define the layer of meaning that results from the interplay of the harmony and rhythm of the signs and motifs. The most frequently repeated imagery sets the tone of the work as with the color red in Macbethwith less repeated imagery working in contrast with this tonal background.
This section of the essay gives a faithful representation of literary formalism also known as New Criticism. Frye's representation of formalism here is unique; however, its setting as part of the larger system of literary criticism Frye outlines in the entire work. The notion of form and perhaps Frye's literal phase relies heavily on the assumption of inherent meaning within the text—a point contested by deconstructionist critics.
The mythical phase is the treatment of a symbol as an archetype. This concept relates most closely with intertextuality and considers the symbol in a work as interconnected with similar symbolism throughout the entire body of literature.
While Frye deals with myths and archetypes from a broader perspective in the third essay, in this section he focuses on the critical method of tracing a symbol's heritage through literary works both prior and subsequent to the work in question.
Frye argues that convention is a vital part of literature and that copyright is harmful to the process of literary creation. Frye points to the use of convention in Shakespeare and Milton as examples to strengthen his argument that even verbatim copying of text and plot essay on criticism summary not entail a death of creativity. Further, Frye argues that romantic, anti-conventional writers such as Walt Whitman tend to follow convention anyway.
In criticism, essay on criticism summary, the study of the archetypal phase of a symbol is akin to the "nature" perspective in the psychological debate over nature versus nurture. Rather than viewing the symbol as a unique achievement of the author or some inherent quality of the text, the archetypal phase essay on criticism summary the symbol in its society of literary kindred as a product of its conventional forebears. Finally, Frye proposes an anagogic phase wherein a symbol is treated as a monad, essay on criticism summary.
The anagogic level of medieval allegory treated a text as expressing the highest spiritual meaning. For example, essay on criticism summary, Dante's Beatrice in the Divine Comedy would represent the bride of Christ, essay on criticism summary, i.
e, the Catholic Church. Frye makes the argument that not only is there a lateral connection of archetypes through intertextuality, but that there is a transcendent almost spiritual unity within the body of literature. Frye describes the essay on criticism summary in literature as "the imitation of infinite social action and infinite human thought, the mind of a man who is all men, the universal creative word which is all words. Frye begins the essay regarding myth as the source of all literature as a visual, auditory and textual art formpaintings as visual art form and music as an auditory art form.
The underlying structures and patterns of all these forms are similar, essay on criticism summary, though they have a unique style of their own. as described in Great Chain of Being. The third essay is the culmination of Frye's theory in that it unites the elements of characterization and each of the five symbolic phases presented in the first two essays into an organic whole.
This whole is organized around a metaphor of human desire and frustration as manifested in the Great Chain of Being divine, human, animal, vegetable, mineral and water by analogy essay on criticism summary the four seasons. At one pole we have apocalyptic imagery which typifies the revelation of heaven and ultimate fulfillment of human desire. In this state, the literary structure points toward unification of all things in a single analogical symbol.
The ultimate of the divine is the deity, essay on criticism summary, of the human is Christ or any other being that embodies the oneness of humanity in its spiritual culminationof the animal is the lambof the vegetable is the Tree of Life or vineessay on criticism summary, and of the mineral is the heavenly Jerusalem or city of God, essay on criticism summary.
At the essay on criticism summary pole lies demonic imagery which typifies the unfulfillment, perversion, or opposition of human desire. In this state, things tend toward anarchy or tyranny. The divine is an angry, inscrutable God demanding sacrifice, the human is the tyrannical anti-Christthe animal is a predator such as a lionthe vegetable is the evil wood as found at the beginning of Dante's Inferno or Hawthorne's " Young Goodman Brown ", and the city is the dystopia embodied by Orwell 's or Kafka 's The Castle.
Great Chain of Being by Aristotle. unicornPhoenix. Finally we have the analogical imagery, or more simply, depictions of states that are similar to paradise or hellbut not identical. There is a great deal of variety in the imagery of these structures, but tame animals and wise rulers are common in structures analogical to the apocalyptic analogy of innocencewhile predatory aristocrats and essay on criticism summary living in squalor characterize analogy to the demonic analogy of experience.
Frye then identifies the mythical mode with the apocalyptic, the ironic with the demonic, and the romantic and low mimetic with their respective analogies. The high mimeticthen, occupies the center of all four. This ordering allows Frye to place the modes in a circular structure and point to the cyclical nature of myth and archetypes. In this setting, literature represents the natural cycle of birth, growth, maturity, decline, death, resurrectionrebirth, and the repetition of the cycle. The remainder of the chapter deals with the cycle of the four seasons as embodied by four mythoi: comedyromancetragedyand irony or satire.
In the first three essays, Frye deals mainly with the first three elements of Aristotle's elements of poetry i. mythos, ethos, dianoia. In the fourth essay, he explores the last three elements:. Whereas mythos is the verbal imitation of action and dianoia the verbal imitation of thought ethos being composed of the twoessay on criticism summary, melos and opsis with lexis composed of the two correspond, though seen from a different rhetorical perspective.
Frye identifies the connection as such: "The world of social action and event. has a particularly strong association with the ear. The world of individual thought and idea has a correspondingly close connection with the eye.
Rhetoric means two things: ornamental opsis speech and persuasive melos speech. Rhetorical criticism, then, is the exploration of literature in the light of melos, opsis, and their interplay as manifested in essay on criticism summary. The radical of presentation —the relation or idealized relation between author and audience—is a essay on criticism summary consideration. Difference in genre relies not on topical considerations science fiction, romance, mysterynor in length e, essay on criticism summary.
Alexander Pope An Essay on Criticism summary in hindi
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